Robot Operating System

ROS (Robot Operating System) is a framework for robot software development, providing operating system-like functionality on top of a heterogenous computer cluster. ROS was originally developed in 2007 under the name switchyard by the Stanford Artificial Intelligence Laboratory in support of the Stanford AI Robot (STAIR[1]) project. As of 2008, development continues primarily at Willow Garage, a robotics research institute/incubator, with more than twenty institutions collaborating in a federated development model [1][2].ROS provides standard operating system services such as hardware abstraction, low-level device control, implementation of commonly-used functionality, message-passing between processes, and package management. It is based on a graph architecture where processing takes place in nodes that may receive, post and multiplex sensor, control, state, planning, actuator and other messages. The library is geared towards a Unix-like system (Ubuntu Linux is listed as ‘supp orted' while other variants such as Fedora and Mac OS X are considered ‘experimental') but is intended to be cross-platform.At present Windows is listed as having ‘partial functionality' [3]. ROS has two basic â€Å"sides†: The operating system side ros as described above and ros-pkg, a suite of user contributed packages (organized into sets called stacks) that implement functionality such as simultaneous localization and mapping, planning, perception, simulation etc. ROS is released under the terms of the BSD license, and is open source software. It is free for commercial and research use. The ros-pkg contributed packages are licensed under a variety of open source licenses.

Is the Claim of White Skin Privilege a Myth

Is the Claim of White Skin Privilege a myth? As a whole, minorities from all religions, races, and sexualities have reached numerous high points in life. These high points have resulted in the establishment and entitlement to minorities having the same rights as whites. However, the right of blacks as in being equal is always up for debate. Statistics show and prove that for every dollar a white household brings in, a black household only brings in 61 cents. Some people like to say that the white household is more skilled or has a higher education, however, this is not the case in most situations.These facts can be accurately traced back to the issue of discrimination against blacks. Most people agree that this type of discrimination is seen frequently but never spoken of. Why are there different meanings of this word for different races, if the foundation of our country established as everyone is equal? What do these rights actually mean, and if most people pay these rights absolute ly no attention at all, why are these rights even in place? Focusing on the topics of white benefits, white denial, and a personal opinion, in this essay will I will explain to the reader the question, â€Å"Is the claim of white skin privilege a myth? Referring to the author from the first passage, Paul Kivel, â€Å" The reality of privilege is so embedded within the dominant group that to recognize and admit its reality is alien to most whites. † As a whole, white people in the United States do not recognize the fact that they have different right to this day. They just realize the effects that most benefit themselves. The benefits that white people receive are coveted by numerous people all over the globe. Many people around the world sacrifice their customs, beliefs, and languages, just so they can have these benefits.It has been proven that whites have thrived in many parts of life just for exploiting and manipulating people of color. Why would someone risk their own cu lture in order to obtain these privileges, is a question a lot of people ask? The only answer that makes any sense at all is for the people to be economically successful. Many people of color face difficult challenges and disadvantages over whites, simply because the person is white. With people of color having disadvantages, there comes, insults, discrimination, violence, harassment and economic and cultural exploitation.The majority of people of color have experienced at least one of these disadvantages in their lives, but most have grown to expect these disadvantages. Just because of these discriminations, a lot of colored people avoid a lot of situations at work and at school, and they are more likely to have fingers pointed at them for robberies, or have their car searched for some bogus reason. When a topic of race is brought up however, whites are quick to speak on it. Many dramatic emotions and feelings flow through the minds of white people as they are forced to talk about the existence of racism in today’s society.Black people are consistently accused of using or pulling the â€Å"race card†, but is something expected to be an outcome of it? According to Tom Wise, the black person’s reward is actually non-existent. Actually it is normally the white person who pulls a race card and gets a positive outcome from it. According to whites, the race card, â€Å"is something people of color play so as to distract the rest of us, or to gain sympathy. † However, studies show that people of color are actually normally scared to use the card in fear that they may be attacked, or simply ignored altogether.Wise accurately addresses the problem that people of color deal with. â€Å"Simply put: whites in every generation have thought there was no real problem with racism, irrespective of the evidence, and in every generation we have been wrong. † Over the course of many years, whites have actually become immune to the claims of rac ial inequality; they say that they have found cures for people of color and their problems. These cures are Drapetomania and Victim Syndrome. Drapetomania originated as a so-called â€Å"cure† to explain why slaves escaped from their loving masters.Masters were told that keeping a slave in a child state of mind, that he or she would in turn be loyal to there master. However whites also found a way to ignore the state of mind that the slaves were in, they stamp them with an illness and took it ay to far. This stamp is revealed over a century later in Washington State in a school district. People of color were falsely accused of having disorders, and also accused of being extremely paranoid. The actual name created for their â€Å"illness† is called the â€Å"victimization syndrome. Whites are quick to accuse blacks of victim mentality, due to the fact that they were being inspired by the Civil Rights Movement, and for the simple fact that they â€Å"want† to be considered targets for harassment. Whites to this day still refuse to discuss the situation and persistently deny the fact that it still exists even to this day. This could just be because whites themselves have never been through such an experience in their lives, and continue to cover it up with their own excuses and ignorance. I am white, however I do not agree with some of the racial situations that still exist in our society today.I as a white American am faced with a lot of the same challenges as a black individual, however I do strongly believe that everyone in this country from birth has equal opportunity. This is only because public education is free to everyone in America. Do I think that people of color experience difficulties in finding jobs, or moving up the cultural, corporate, or economical ladder? No, in this case I do not. Why you might ask? Well let me tell you this, every single one of my bosses at work are black, and how did they get there?They worked their way u p the ladder. However, two of the managers I work for graduated from FAMU. So I do not agree with the statements that all blacks are faced with discrimination. However I do admit that some do experience discrimination, but I must say in those situations the person of color needs to keep their head high and prove that person wrong. Many people go far in life with self-motivation, without self-motivation not much can be accomplished, but use times when you are criticized or discriminated against to push you further.Tell yourself that no that is not how it is and aim to prove that person wrong and do not stop until you get there. I do believe that this country still needs to change I would love to see everyone in this country do well and everyone should strive to succeed. There are many opinions of this situation out there, and I do not believe that in my lifetime that this situation will be resolved but we cannot focus on the past we must move forward and strive for excellence.

“In A Time Of War” Poem Essay

The title of Rothenberg’s poem â€Å"In a Time of War† seems to encapsulate the poem’s subject-matter, written with uncomplicated words of the English vocabulary makes the poem stand out in a stark manner. This method is used by Rothenberg to illustrate to readers exactly how he sees war, as it is. One outstanding feature of this poem is its structure. Rothenberg appears to want to isolate the first stanza from the rest of the poem. At a closer reading, the first stanza is concerned with the poet’s thoughts of war, while it is taking place, whereas the remaining stanzas talk about his feelings on the notion of war, irregardless of whether it is occurring or not. This distinction is further enhanced by the language and degree of imagery of the stanzas. Note that in stanza one, there is more emphasis on description, with the constant use of pastoral imagery, â€Å"daisies wilt† and â€Å"the war sucks up the dew.† The mood generated from it, is â€Å"dark†, gloomy and miserable. However, reading on, the mood apparently lightens up, especially from stanza three. The word â€Å"love† begins to appear. The pastoral imagery transforms to a more hopeful state, â€Å"a love that floats like butterflies† and â€Å"flowers in the endless night.† Rothenberg is probably telling the reader that all is not lost, â€Å"even a year of war won’t hide or tame [moon acacia water lily star].† There is hence, no predominant gloomy mood or atmosphere to this poem as there is a shift from a state of hopelessness to one with some optimism present. Even so, we cannot overlook the fact that Rothenberg is saying that since we can move on from the aftermath of war, we can then take war lightly. The poet, apart from telling readers not to lose faith when war comes, is also signaling to us that â€Å"war [is] waiting in the gateway to the hive.† The lesson Rothenberg is conveying to the readers that war may strike us anytime, and so we should prevent it at all costs if not things might return to how he describes it in stanza one. The structure of stanza one consists of many short lines, even a word alone  constitutes a line as seen in the tenth line â€Å"nightingales.† Rothenberg ‘compels’ the reader to pay attention to each and every line. He wants us to feel, as closely as possible of the horrific experiences that war can bring out. Wars sometimes take decades before it ends and the literal length of the stanza symbolizes this. And yet, as we move on the next stanzas, lengthwise, they grow shorter and the lack of commas causes the reader to move from one stanza to the next rather swiftly until we approach stanza seven where Rothenberg cautions us of the unpredictability of war. And if we fail to take his advice in hand, we return to the state that stanza one illustrates. The poem may have ended with stanza seven, but Rothenberg has cleverly twisted it. A vicious cycle is formed, if humans refuse to prevent war, â€Å"another war† will always emerge. The poem is overall an excellent portrayal of the world â€Å"in a time of war.†

Responsibilities of Management Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 3500 words - 1

Responsibilities of Management - Essay Example The organizations should recognize the importance of equality in workplace, which motivates the employees to improve their performance. Management is the art of getting things done by the people for achieving the desired objectives. What a manager does is also called management. It is the process of planning, organizing, directing, staffing, co-coordinating, reporting and budgeting. The levels of management are of three types. They are top level management, middle level management and lower level management. The main responsibility of a manager is to control the entire organization. The important responsibilities are encouraging employees, making sure that employees achieve the organizational objectives, controlling the activities and looking after the employees, making sure that resources are used in the best possible manner. That means usages of resources in most productive way, minimizing waste, and making sure of efficient use of time. The human resources manager plays a very important role in organizational hierarchy in between top level management to bottom level management. The important responsibilities of h uman resource manager are as follows. The human resource manager controls the employees and he is responsible for monitoring, guiding, and encouraging them in the best possible manner. He provides very good support to the selection of staff who meets the organizational standard. To sustain the competitive advantages the following factors should be maintained. They are performance management, providing training, reward, and recognition to staff, retention of employees, implementation and supervision of human resource policies and making sure of availability of human resources to accomplish the organizational objectives. â€Å"Stress is the emotional and physical strain caused by our response to pressure from the outside world. Common stress reactions include tension, irritability, inability to

Case study analysis Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 750 words - 2

Case study analysis - Essay Example Jessica, in her description, stated the behavioural problems John underwent. According to her recount of events, John was not talking as early as the age of two. John is obsessed with his train toys and spends most of the time playing with them. Every time his mother changes his routine, he became completely agitated. He would even get displeased when interrupted to go to bed. John’s behaviour in school also worried her mother. He would invade other childrens playing spaces while at school, where he would scratch or bite them when frustrated. He also often licked playground equipment and doorknobs. John would exhibit varied reactions to signal what he wants. For instance, he once threw a temper tantrum in frustration that he would not have what he wants. Jessica was so worried about the inability of his son to express himself. Thus, she decided to contact our social working centre, whereby I was assigned to work on the case. Jessica reported that John lags behind his age mates in self-help skills. Recently, however, Jessica observed that John was succeeding in toilet training. He has been staying dry more often and would ask when he wants to visit the bathroom. Nonetheless, John still experienced accidents during the nights. His attempts to learn how to dress had been futile as he still put on clothes inside out. John, on a positive note, followed instructions, especially when told to stay indoors. Jessica discovered that John’s condition would trigger taunts and provocations from truants in the neighbourhood. One of the boys in the neighbourhood had been purportedly doing drugs. Jessica, therefore, felt that he would be a bad influence to his estranged son. Jessica mother firmly believed that John’s was a consequence of poor parenting. Her neglect of John and the physical abuses of his ex-husband may have contributed to John’s condition. As a solution, she believed that

Behavioral and performance issues with a customer service Case Study

Behavioral and performance issues with a customer service representative - Case Study Example This study focuses on many challenges resulted by the recent deregulation of financial services in Canadian banking industry, many changes have been incorporated in banking system. Previously cross-ownership between four pillars (banking, insurance, trust and security) was not allowed but due to the deregulation it is possible now. This has brought many new opportunities and challenges in the market with increased competition. To meet new objectives pressure on customer service officers have been increased which also meant low flexibility in working hours and job sharing. The Canadian National bank is among the largest chartered banks in Canada with 1600 branches around the nation. The focus of this study is on one of the case of employee behavior in the Chatham branch of Canadian National bank. This case discusses two employees of Chatham branch of Canadian National bank, Lesley Mohan and Pam Stewart. Lesley was a newly hired customer service manager and Pam Stewart was 25 years employee, holding the position customer service executive. The main area of discussion is Pam’s conflicting attitude and Lesley’s respond to it.... Previously cross-ownership between four pillars (banking, insurance, trust and security) was not allowed but due to the deregulation it is possible now. This has brought many new opportunities and challenges in the market with increased competition. To meet new objectives pressure on customer service officers have been increased which also meant low flexibility in working hours and job sharing. The Canadian National bank is among the largest chartered banks in Canada with 1600 branches around the nation. The focus of this study is on one of the case of employee behavior in the Chatham branch of Canadian National bank. This case discusses two employees of Chatham branch of Canadian National bank, Lesley Mohan and Pam Stewart. Lesley was a newly hired customer service manager and Pam Stewart was 25 years employee, holding the position customer service executive. The main area of discussion is Pam’s conflicting attitude and Lesley’s respond to it. Problem statement â€Å" Although Pam’s (CSR) experience was so vast and past performance was above average, but her conflicting behavior, self superiority and resistance to change was creating difficulties for new customer manager to adopt recently made changes by higher authority and improve assigned bank branch performance while sustaining her growth and position, human resource and conflict management theories could be considered as a measure to decrease the severity of problem† Problems Pam’s (customer service representative) conflicting behavior with Lesley, new customer service manager Pam’s self superiority because of her 25 years of experience Pam’s resistance to change recently made by customer service capacity management schedule Pam’s rebellion attitude towards Lesley Sub problems

Regulating Food Safety Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1000 words

Regulating Food Safety - Essay Example But are the current regulations working Do the current laws give the consumer the level of protection necessary to guarantee safety This paper will examine several examples of potential problems in our food supply. It will explain the problem, the government's position, and the level of success that the regulations have in controlling contamination in the human food chain. The difficulty for government to assure food safety through regulation is exemplified in the case of Bovine Spongiform Encephalopathy (BSE). BSE, also known as Mad Cow Disease, has taken lives, instilled panic in the public, and destroyed the beef market for producers. Cattle are grazing animals that do not naturally eat meat. Most experts agree that BSE was most likely spread by cattle eating feed that contained Meat-and-Bone Meal (MBM). The government has since banned the feeding of MBM to beef cattle in a strategy known as point of entry control. Government regulation, in regards to food, has proven to be most successful by monitoring those points in the food chain where contamination may occur. In the example of BSE, the incubation period in cattle is 4 to 6 years and an infected animal would show no signs of the disease when slaughtered. Likewise, testing all the beef to assure safety would increase the cost and may not prove efficient. However, controlling the most likely entry point of the disease can greatly reduce the likelihood of an outbreak. This action taken in conjunction with spot testing of cattle in the feed lots can be an effective course of action. With an isolated disease and a single point of entry for contamination, this approach works well. However, let us consider other contaminants that may be more pervasive and more difficult to control. Two such biological agents are e-coli and salmonella. These are common food contaminants that routinely show up in chicken and ground meat. Points of entry are far too numerous to control to assure safety. Routine testing at the production facilities can help reduce the danger, but not eliminate it below the desired threshold. Proper cooking eliminates the danger and it is left to the public to take responsibility for adequate preparation. However, what control does the consumer have over the proper handling and preparation of food served in a restaurant Government regulations are very thorough in their requirements for public food safety in the restaurant business. Recent regulations enacted into law as of Jan 1, 2006 mandate strict health inspections of restaurants and caterers. The laws outline the requirements for maintaining temperature control and proper handling of raw food. Cleanliness and hygiene are stressed, as is proper labelling of foods and ingredients. The government enforces the regulation by routine inspections of public restaurants. Though these regulations can not prevent outbreaks of food poisoning, they can help reduce the frequency and severity of them. The restaurant management and employees are, in the end, responsible for the safe handling of food. The proper training of food service workers could probably do more to eliminate food poisoning than any other step the government could take. Another area that consumers put themselves at risk is in the area of allergies and intolerance. Allergies to wheat, eggs, nuts, and almost anything else can be fatal to some consumers. Others face mild to severe reactions. Consumers are only able to evaluate the contents of the product

Steps to Ethical Decision Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 2500 words

Steps to Ethical Decision - Essay Example Three main assumptions that define how this issue could present an ethical challenge. The conflict involved is to what extent is the appreciation token genuine but not a bribe. More apparently, the winner of a tender out of good will decides to present appreciation to the entire panel openly inform of either cash, a party or any other form that may appear inducement. No doubt, many will find it within the sound business practice considering it happens publicly and more importantly out of the willingness of the rich supplier. Secondly, such offers are hard to be defined within the context of bribery because this is not done in secret, and everyone gets an entitlement to a fair share. Lastly, this occurs after the panel has established successfully that the supplier justly deserves the tender, however accepting gifts or goodies could jeopardize other potential competitors in future.Concisely, some parties may argue that it may be unethical to accept offers from business partners. Howev er, the manner at which this offer is given appears fair and not an inducement. When trapped in such a dilemma and case, the eight clearly outlined steps are fundamental in bringing the conflict to sanity. Basic Ethical Principles. Situation analysis of benefits versus burdens. While some decisions may appear ethical, it may bring huge burden to an organization. Loss of integrity and the perception of lack of fairness are two critical challenges that may accrue from a controversial ethical decision.

The Judiciary Committee of the Virginia State Bar Association Essay

The Judiciary Committee of the Virginia State Bar Association - Essay Example The membership of the Virginia State Bar is restricted to five categories that are active members, associate members, disabled and retired members, judicial members, and the emeritus members. Each group of members has defined roles and responsibilities that are aimed at ensuring the Bar’s responsibility to the state is achieved in the most integrated way possible. Members also belong to different committees with the Judicial Candidate Evaluation Committee being responsible for the consideration and search of appropriate nominees to fill any judicial vacancies. The constitution of the committee is thirteen active members. These members are carefully selected to ensure that each of the ten existing disciplinary districts in Virginia is represented, while the other three are from the state. Each member’s election restricts them to remain in office for only three year terms after which they are no longer eligible candidates. In addition, the election of the committee members is by the Council upon the recommendation of the nominating committee.

Philosophy and Pornography Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 750 words

Philosophy and Pornography - Essay Example Some people derives pleasure from watching pornographic materials whereas others taking inspirations from such materials and engage in sexually abusive activities. According to James McConvill (2006), â€Å"the incidence of rape in the United States has declined 85 per cent in the past 25 years while access to pornography has become freely available to teenagers and adults† (McConvill). It should be noted that the last 25 years witnessed tremendous growth in the internet related technologies. Since internet is the prominent channel for spreading pornography, any growth in internet related technologies growth, development and spreading of pornographic materials across the world. There are many countries and states which restricted the spreading of pornographic contents through internet because of the concerns about the possibility of increased sexual violence cases. However, it is found that â€Å"the four US states with the lowest internet access had the highest increase in r ape incidents (53% increases) between 1980 and 2004, whereas the four states with the highest internet access, experienced the largest decrease in rape incidents (27% decrease)† (McConvill). ... Accumulation of any kind of energy at a particular place is results in unfavourable incidents. Teenagers, who are deprived the opportunity to access internet pornography, will try to release their sexual energy through rape like sexual violence. There are many arguments against the spreading of pornography. â€Å"Pornography promotes destructive practices and can lead to progressive addiction† (So what's so bad about pornography?). The general belief prevailing among most of the societies in the world is that pornography has more destructive elements than constructive elements. In many countries, access to pornography is regulated only to the adults. It is a common belief that teenagers derive inspirations from pornographic materials and may try to imitate it in their real life also. In countries where strict laws prevail, sexual violence cases are less even if the access to pornographic materials is easy. For example, in many of the Middle Eastern countries, sex related crime s are less compared to that in other parts of the world because of the stiff laws. On the other hand, in democratic countries like India or America, sex crimes are increasing day by day because of the absence of strong laws to punish sex offenders. The above facts clearly indicate that the response to pornographic materials is different in different countries because of the differences in the criminal justice systems in different countries. In China also, people engage in less criminal activities related to sex, even though they have access to pornographic materials. In other words, culture, belief in morality, criminal justice system and political frame works play an important role in public behaviour in response

Chi-Globalization Term Paper Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 2000 words

Chi-Globalization - Term Paper Example Chi globalization encompasses the creation of a society with various specific features such as pragmatism, inter-culturalism and multiculturalism. This concept is basically a demonstration of a process that involves china’s engagement in the diverse aspects of civilization and development of globalization. Concerns revolve around the creation of globally enlightened world with the aim of facilitating and enhancing the lives of people from the point of view of a Eurocentric model. Chi globalization can be viewed as being both intercultural and bicultural. From the bicultural viewpoint it basically has its foundation on the emergence of the Chinese model that followed from china’s fusion with western and eastern cultures (Killion, 2006, p.45). The fusion of the different cultures has its origin from the opium war which took place in the 1850’s. In this case chi globalization occupies quite an integral part in the history as well as the current state of china in rel ation civilization and development (Alon, Ilan and John 2008, p.37). A study of what drove forth towards the existence of Chi globalization indicates that Anglobalization is a major factor. On the other hand Chi globalization being understood as being something that is intercultural two processes are involved. The first process presents that it is an opportunity created for china to open and embrace other cultures form other people. The second process demonstrates that chi globalization is involves the identification and incorporation of other cultures into the Chinese culture for instance the African culture, Latin American culture among others. An in-depth analysis of chi globalization presents some unique factors that have played quite a major role in its development. The globalization of America forms an important in this discussion. This is due to the fact it is the fundamental basis in which chi globalization grew out of. In connection to this the United States has acted as a model for china from the economic, cultural and social perspectives. Most aspects of civilization and development in china have simply been a reflection of what is happening in the United States (Veeck, Pannell, Smith and Huang 2007, p.60) For years America has been a major consumer of china made goods providing a reliable market even when the state is hit by a financial crisis such as the Wall Street crisis. On the same not America has had interest and created ties with china through engagement in foreign direct investment. Most of the ideas and strategies that have been used to drive china’s development have sourced from the United States thus making America a major source inspiration for the state of china. Up to this point on the higher side the American dream is in a way the dream for china. Therefore china has some fundamental values similar to those understood to facilitate the development of globalization in the United States. Such values include the free flow of both ideas and information and free flow of capital and goods. Despite Chi globalization borrowing a lot from Ameriglobalization and Anglobalization there are some unique values that make it differ in a way. This is due to the fact that it highly relates more to the culture in china. Increased identification with the world of Ameriglobalization and Anglobalization makes the way of life for the Chinese people a global model aimed at fostering development that fits the

Classical studies Essay Example for Free

Classical studies Essay The Colosseum was the first permanent amphitheatre to be built in Rome. Its huge size, as well as the practical and efficient way it dealt with organising of events and ways of controlling large crowds in a safe manner makes it one of the greatest architectural buildings ever constructed in the Roman Empire and was a gift from Emperor Vespasian and finished under Emperor Titus. The building itself is a vast ellipse with tiers of seating for about 50,000 spectators around a central elliptical arena. There are 76 entrances into the amphitheatre to allow crowds to arrive and leave safely and quickly.  The architects had recognised the need for more permanent seating in the Colosseum as opposed temporary wooden benches or the piles of earth used in previous amphitheatres located in other cities. This was after all the centre of the known world and home to the Emperor and so had to be built on a grand scale never seen before. Firstly it had to be a safe place for people to visit and stay for periods of time. Many revolutionary safety devices were designed and attached to the Colosseum, such as the podiums that were built with top rollers that prevented the wild animals and convicts from climbing on top and into the crowd.  There is also the design of the exterior to consider. Despite the main activity going on inside the theatre, the design of the outside was equally if not more important. What it outwardly showed was very important to the Romans. The games were responsible for ridding the city of criminals and dangerous animals, it had to symbolise great power and splendour. The grand scale of the Colosseum was impressive but not overpowering, it was important that it was welcoming but large enough to entertain audiences in there thousands. PART TWO Essay Although they occupied one of the lowest rungs on the roman society ladder, Gladiators were widely regarded as some of the bravest members of roman society.  A gladiator was considered a professional fighter and apart from fighting other gladiators, would also pit his skills against animals in amphitheatres all over the empire. These battles started out as mere ceremonial bouts at funerals before evolving over 600 or so years into the sort of grand entertainment that we now think of as a typical day in the colosseum or indeed any of the amphitheatres around the republic and empire. The word Gladiator comes from the Latin gladiatores meaning swordsman, which in turn comes from the word gladius which was a short sword used by soldiers in the roman army. Gladiators were usually slaves or prisoners who were bought by a manager and trainer of gladiators (known as a lanista) in order to be trained as proper gladiators. There were also some free men who actually volunteered to be gladiators, no doubt looking for the celebrity that the profession offered successful entrants, a lot like children of today aspiring to becoming a famous footballer or cricketer. There were several different types of gladiators who were trained to excel in the use of different weapons, and wore different types of armour depending on the type of combat they were to enter. Some gladiators who had been prisoners of war used their native weapons and armour, and portrayed themselves as their native characters in battles, such as Gauls or Thracians.  The image often given of the Gladiator as a savage fighter might very well be just fiction. They were very skilled at what they did and like most people they would rather live than die. This is not so the case of criminals who fought and although given training, were not expected to live beyond a year. A gladiator who survived over three years was on occasion set free. It is now thought that fights may have been more civilised and theatrical than previously believed. The level of training these men undertook suggests that they would have been very good at putting on a show for the paying public and controlling movements, in the same way that the wrestlers of today are basically putting on a show. And even if the audience did order a gladiator dead at the conclusion of a match, it is highly probable that the opponent imposed only a superficial wound, in order to please the crowd. The losing gladiator might have then been dragged under the staging area and killed by an executioner undercover or allowed to recover and then resume his occupation a few months later under a new name. After all, it was all about entertaining the masses and making money for both the trainer and the owners of the venues. Because they were such expensive investments, gladiators were allowed the very best food and received the very best medical care available. In most cases Gladiators only fought 3 or 4 times a year so to stay fresh and make a big draw for the crowd who would undoubtedly had favourites from each troop of fighters who would roam from area to area fighting in different amphitheatres month after month. The games though were not only a source of entertainment for the citizens of the Roman empire, but many saw the chance to acquire fame, popularity, a reversal of lost fortunes and even freedom if they were lucky enough to survive. The games were primarily important because of what they offered those involved. Many people profited from the games, in particular those who hosted them. The games conveyed the habits of the upper class, for anyone who hosted the games it was a measure of their wealth as the expense was huge due to the number of beasts and fighters needed to entertain the crowd for any length of time. A new generation of traders and politicians found fame and popularity because they were able to spend great amounts to stage the games, which increased their status and influence within the upper social circle of the roman class system. Because of the way the games were held, it allowed the common people to mix with the upper classes at these events and on occasion win competitions for various luxury items, rather like the 1/2 time golden ticket draw held at most sporting events today. The games were not loved by everyone in roman society. As Cicero questions the measure of enjoyment the games can offer in C7 Pompeys shows, But what pleasure can it be to a man of refinement when either a powerless man is torn by a powerful beast, or else a magnificent beast is spitted on a hunting spear? What he is saying is if youve seen one man kill a beast youve seen it all and vice versa. The gladiator was looked upon as both a hero and a rogue depending on his route into the games and his ability to wow the crowd with his skills as both a warrior and an actor.  In conclusion, the gladiators were important because of what they could offer both the public and the wealthy in respect of status and prestige. The games were also important to Romans because of where they were held and what the amphitheatre conveyed, the very symbol of the politics of Rome.

The Alternative Tourism Development Tourism Essay

The Alternative Tourism Development Tourism Essay Currently, most tourism trends are considerable of green mode tourism market as seen the declined of mass-tourism line in many countries. The form of healthier tour influenced tourist who has personal interests of tour activities such as sport, recreation, adventure and nature conservation. Worldwide acceptability as Tourism is one of many Industries which is non-polluting Industry and continue rapidly growth. Numerous countries perceive to majority income, therefore Tourism Industry generate job to the destination At the same time, the more tourism growth is the more anxious of negative impact to the host country. Over the past decade or so, tourism form as Mass tourismor Traditional Tourism which emphasize a large group of tourist several countries particular in developing country mass tourism is being extremely promoted. However, It was realized that mass tourism become the main majority social and environmental effected meanwhile, the kind of mass tourism not rather contribute a full measure of ecomomic as its convinced. In United Nations Foundation Report 2002 stated that  ¿Ã‚ ½Resposible tourism is the job of everyone involved governments, local authorities, the tourist industry and tourisms themselves (2001, p.12) To mend an effect from mass tourism, many research has commence as an appropriate alternative tourism model and hilight to responsible to the host country. New form of tourism appear as Eco-toursim, Soft Tourism, Green Tourism,Responsible tourism, Motivated Tourism, Conservative Tourism etc,. entirely mean of Alternative Tourism. Bicycle tourism proposed the possible for alternative which is can be applies to encourage destination sustainable economic development. Although much research has been implement into application of bicycle tourism with in country, just few research in Thailand about their feasibility can be applies in big city as Bangkok Metropolis where contain of tourist attraction. Tourism Authority Of Thailand (Marketing Plan 2009) Currently promoting tourism as a main marketing plan in the same previous slogan of Amazing Thailand additional of Seven Wonders of Amazing Thailand in oversea market. One of theme call Nature The Beauty of Natural Wonders which present green tourism mode to perceive of environmental value and enegy conservation in the forms of Seven Green and bicycle tour is in mode of green logistices hilight on tourism activities using environment friendly transport. According to TAT informationà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦Ãƒ ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦Ãƒ ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦Ãƒ ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦Ãƒ  Ã‚ ¸Ã¢â€ž ¢Ãƒ  Ã‚ ¸Ã‚ ³Ãƒ  Ã‚ ¸Ã¢â‚¬Å¡Ãƒ  Ã‚ ¹Ã¢â‚¬ °Ãƒ  Ã‚ ¸Ã‚ ­Ãƒ  Ã‚ ¸Ã‚ ¡Ãƒ  Ã‚ ¸Ã‚ ¹Ãƒ  Ã‚ ¸Ã‚ ¥Ãƒ  Ã‚ ¸Ã¢â‚¬Å¡Ãƒ  Ã‚ ¸Ã‚ ­Ãƒ  Ã‚ ¸Ã¢â‚¬ ¡Ãƒ  Ã‚ ¸Ã‚ Ãƒ  Ã‚ ¸Ã‚ ²Ãƒ  Ã‚ ¸Ã‚ £Ãƒ  Ã‚ ¸-à  Ã‚ ¹Ã‹â€ Ãƒ  Ã‚ ¸Ã‚ ­Ãƒ  Ã‚ ¸Ã¢â‚¬ ¡Ãƒ  Ã‚ ¹Ã¢â€š ¬Ãƒ  Ã‚ ¸-à  Ã‚ ¸Ã‚ µÃƒ  Ã‚ ¹Ã‹â€ Ãƒ  Ã‚ ¸Ã‚ ¢Ãƒ  Ã‚ ¸Ãƒ  Ã‚ ¹Ã¢â€š ¬Ãƒ  Ã‚ ¸Ã‚ Ãƒ  Ã‚ ¸Ã‚ µÃƒ  Ã‚ ¹Ã‹â€ Ãƒ  Ã‚ ¸Ã‚ ¢Ãƒ  Ã‚ ¸Ãƒ  Ã‚ ¸Ã‚ Ãƒ  Ã‚ ¸Ã‚ ±Ãƒ  Ã‚ ¸Ã… ¡sprot and recreation à  Ã‚ ¹Ã†â€™Ãƒ  Ã‚ ¸Ã¢â€ž ¢Ãƒ  Ã‚ ¸-à  Ã‚ ¸Ã‚ µÃƒ  Ã‚ ¹Ã‹â€ Ãƒ  Ã‚ ¸Ã¢â‚¬ ¢Ãƒ  Ã‚ ¹Ã‹â€ Ãƒ  Ã‚ ¸Ã‚ ²Ãƒ  Ã‚ ¸Ã¢â‚¬ ¡Ãƒ  Ã‚ ¹Ã¢â‚¬   à  Ã‚ ¹Ã¢â€š ¬Ãƒ  Ã‚ ¸Ã‚ Ãƒ  Ã‚ ¸Ã‚ µÃƒ  Ã‚ ¹Ã‹â€ Ãƒ  Ã‚ ¸Ã‚ ¢Ãƒ  Ã‚ ¸Ãƒ  Ã‚ ¸Ã‚ Ãƒ  Ã‚ ¸Ã‚ ±Ãƒ  Ã‚ ¸Ã… ¡Ãƒ  Ã‚ ¸Ã‚ Ãƒ  Ã‚ ¸Ã‚ ²Ãƒ  Ã‚ ¸Ã‚ £Ãƒ  Ã‚ ¸Ã¢â‚¬Å¡Ãƒ  Ã‚ ¸Ã‚ µÃƒ  Ã‚ ¹Ã‹â€ Ãƒ  Ã‚ ¸Ã‹â€ Ãƒ  Ã‚ ¸Ã‚ ±Ãƒ  Ã‚ ¸Ã‚ Ãƒ  Ã‚ ¸Ã‚ £Ãƒ  Ã‚ ¸Ã‚ ¢Ãƒ  Ã‚ ¸Ã‚ ²Ãƒ  Ã‚ ¸Ã¢â€ž ¢It is obvious that Bicycle Tourism in Thailand have encourage just rural ar eas while rarely in big city as Bangkok. In order to drive a significant of bicycle tourism to be use as an alternative and indicate or influence steakholder to better understand. This project would insist upon base on the fact of domestic cyclist and bicycle tourist demand in services providing to use as a guideline . 1.2 Objective The research was undertaken to analyses cyclist perception and motivation, developed demand model of cycling travellers in Bangkok destination. The purpose of study was to indicate the cycle tour market is significant to encourage sustainable tourism development. The key objectives of this research were: 1. To highlight cycling tour advantages when development and applies to local communities. 2. To indicate significant cycling tour for sustainable tourism. 3. To encourage and motivate to tour organization promote cycling tour as an alternative tourism. 4. To assist or guide government to implement cycling for the perfect alternative tour in Bangkok. 5. To indicate the bicycle tourism market is a potential trend to applies in order to assist green mode tourism. 6. To indicate and evaluate if the cycling tourist demand meets the services provide. 2. Literature Review Definition The Alternative Tourism Alternative Tourism has widely define as : à  Ã‚ ¸Ã‚ «Ãƒ  Ã‚ ¸Ã‚ ²Ãƒ  Ã‚ ¸Ã¢â‚¬Å¾Ãƒ  Ã‚ ¸Ã‚ ³Ãƒ  Ã‚ ¸Ã‹â€ Ãƒ  Ã‚ ¸Ã‚ ³Ãƒ  Ã‚ ¸Ã‚ Ãƒ  Ã‚ ¸Ã‚ ±Ãƒ  Ã‚ ¸Ã¢â‚¬ Ãƒ  Ã‚ ¸Ã¢â‚¬Å¾Ãƒ  Ã‚ ¸Ãƒ  Ã‚ ¸Ã‚ ²Ãƒ  Ã‚ ¸Ã‚ ¡ à  Ã‚ ¸Ã‚ ­Ãƒ  Ã‚ ¹Ã¢â‚¬ °Ãƒ  Ã‚ ¸Ã‚ ²Ãƒ  Ã‚ ¸Ã¢â‚¬ ¡2-3 à  Ã‚ ¸Ã¢â‚¬Å¾Ãƒ  Ã‚ ¸Ã¢â€ž ¢ As described in Eadington Smith (1992, p. 75), Richard (2002) presents Alternative Tourism as: Alternative tourism define as tourism that is consistent with natural, social and community value, which allows hosts and guests to enjoy worthwhile interactions and shared experiences. Richard S. David T. J. 2002, Tourism Development Concept and Issue, Aspects of Tourism, Cambrian Printers Ltd., Great Britain. Ateljecvic, I. Doorne, S. (2000). Staying Within the Fence: Lifestyle Entrepreneurship in Tourism. Journal of Sustainable Tourism, 8(5),pp378-92. Alternative tourism concept would supervise for environment from stakeholders such tourists, tour agents and local host. On the other hand, these tourism form will also custody of environment, culture heritage and local livelihood in the destination. Awang, Hassan Zahari s study(cited in Ateljevic Doorne 2000) Most important of all, Alternative tourism is the significant form which focus on a tiny group of tourists and countryside visit more than urban. The hilight on Alternative Tourism as the gist of how the tourist choose what they really attend whether travel places, accommodations, tour agents including every travel activities in the tourism line. The Bicycle Tourism defined as: Several issue of bicycle term but rarely denote bicycle as a part of tourism, however Sustrans (1999, p.1) has defined bicycle tourism as: Recreational visits, either overnight or day visit away from home, which involve leisure cycling as a fundamental and significant part of the visit. Wen Li (2003) defined bicycle tourism as a positive activity, which includeds both transportation and recreation experiences. Wen,H.C., Li,H.C.2003, A strategic study of bicycle tourism in Taiwan, Journal of the Eastern Asia Society for transportation Studies, vol.5, October, pp.1675-1683. Ritchie outlines the tourism activity using bicycle tour has more significant mode of vacation or holiday transport (1998). Bicycling is the form of non-polluting activities and people ride bicycles for a widely purposes such as recreation, personal business or even for work. Ritchie,B.W. (1998). Bicycle tourism in the South Island of New Zealand: Planning and management issues. Vol.19, no.6, pp.567-582 To classify the bicycle tourism Faulks, Ritchie Fluker (2006) agreed that to identify bicycle tourism in order to present the size and scope of cycle tourism thus, the definition will base on activity and the use of a bicycle on holiday. The different sectors were Touring, Community cycling events, Competition and Mountain Biking. Faulks P., Ritchie B. Fluker M.(2006). Cycle Tourism in Australia: An investigation into its size and scope. Sustainable Tourism Cooperative Research Centre, Australia. Types of bicycle tourism can be classified to three main types (Sustrans 1999)as following: A.Cycling Holidays, the definition base on the main purpose of cycling holiday visit both domestic and overseas.Cyclist may organised trip using tour operator or self-organised with short and long period(Sustrans 1999,p.1). B. Holiday Cycling, the definition differ from above, the Holiday cycling mean of traveller selected cycling as one of travel activities on holiday(Sustrans 1999,p.1) C.Cycling Day Visits defined as making short trip ride from one place to another as a leisure and residences were most commonly. Therefore, Central government promoting cycling as a choice of tour activities with provides services to meet tourist demand, Stakeholders wills benefits. The Bicycle Tourist definition Many researchs have been defined bicycle tourist in different ways however, They has been introduced the definition by Richie(1998, pp.568-569) as: A person who is away from their hometown or country for a period not less than 24 hours or on night, for the purpose of a vacation or holiday, and for whom using a bicycle as a mode of transport during this time away is an integral part of their holiday or vacation. This vacation may be independently organised or part of a commercial tour and may include the use of transport support services and any type of formal and/or informal accommodation. 2.2 The Development of Bicycle Tourism 2.3 The Demand For Bicycle Tourism Requirements of Bicycle Tourists both demestic and international 2.4 The Domestic Bicycle Tourism Tourism Authority of Thailand presents the bicycle tourism in the mode of Eco-tourism activities and shows that bicycle tour has available in Bangkok for instance, The Grand Palace areas and provide informations of another bicycle trip in various areas .( Tourism Authority of Thailand 2010). According to informations it is obvious that bicycle tourism has set in tourism market plan and it is probable that the potentials of an alternative tourism development in Bangkok. Tourism Authority of Thailand 2010, Colorful Thailand:Ecotourism, viewed 20 December 2010, . -Bicycle tour organisation It is primarily found that many tour agents in Thailand but few significant with cycling tour market, furthermore,observed that bicycle tourism perform an act of charity or member club. Bangkok Hash House Biker one of mountain biking club presents the event in occasionally and arrange trip once a month for rider.( Bangkok Hash House Biker 2009)http://www.bangkokbikehash.org/AboutUs.html Tour de Thailand presents as a fully supported charity bike ride from North to South of Thailand http://www.bangkokbikehash.org/AboutUs.html -Supple for bicycle tourism 2.5 The Motivation of Bicycle Tourist As previous researched Lamont found that the attracting destination for independent bicycle tourists were the regions ability of cycling support provided such as a potential of cycling infrastructure, magnificent scenery, aiding service for industries and accessibility (Lamont 2008). Lamont J.M.2008, Wheels of change: a model of whole tourism systems for independent bicycle turism, Proceedings of Re-creating tourism: New Zealand Tourism and Hospitality Research Conference, Hanmer Springs, New Zealand, 3-5 December, Lincoln University, Christchurch,pp.1-22.viewed 22 December 2010,. Furthermore, to originate ardor use of bicycle tourism sufficiently, the host must be supplement such a promotional, marketing and widely information and events of cycling provided (Pucher buehler 2009) Pucher J. Buehler R.2009, Cycling for a Few or for Everyone:The Importantce of Social Justice in Cycling Policy,Wolrd Transport Policy Practice, vol.15, no.1, pp.57-64,viewed 22 December 2010, . Sustainable Development definition: Methodology The methodology for this research has been selected in order to obtain data and generalize about the development area of bicycle tourism in Bangkok Metropolis. Type of research The principal purpose of this study is to gain primary information about significant bicycle tourism in order to purpose guidance for bicycle tourism development more efficiently. To investigate the main purpose of study an exploratory will be applies. McKenzie Danforth (2009,p.43) state exploratory research, preliminary research conducted to increase understantding of concept, to clarify the exact nature of the problem to be solved or to identify important variables to be studied. McKenzie K. Danforth S. 2009, Problem Definition, Exploratory Research, and the Research Process.A Marketing Research Proposal. St.George, viewed 22 December 2010,. Data Collection The quantitative and qualitative will be used to achieve the objectives of the research. The quantitative data collection comprise with opened-ended and closed-ended questionnaire will applies into two way. Firstly, the self-completing will design for the online monkey survey will design for a people who yearn for bicycle tourists, or who have undertake cycling as a tour activities previously in order to investigate people with an interest in cycling tour more importantly, the online survey will be logical drive to obtain data both domestic and abroad. The questionnaire will be contribute towards Tourism Authority of Thailand website to assure the survey outcome realibility. Secondly,questionnaire in the same pattern will be conducted with holiday cycling tourist in the visiting area. The qualitative collection, interviews will carried out with Bangkok Bicycle Club member in order to investigate whether the cyclist requirement meet the demand. 3.3 Sampling Design The sample from entire population has been selected therefore, to attain the intensity of study purpose. Sample is a unit of target extracted from a population and aim to be representative of that population(OECD 2003). OSCD 2003, Sample Design,Business Tendency Survey Handbook STATISTICS DIRECTORATE, viewed 23 December 2010, The Quota Sampling design as Survey Monkey online questionnaire in order to gathering primary data from bicycle rider through internal and external. According to OECD: A quota samples is one in which in which each strata identified in the target universe is represented by a specified number (a quota) of respondents. Quota samples are also described as representative samples because the selection of a quota of respondents from each stratum is intended to guarantee that the sample represents, or mirrors, the target universe. Quota samples are also widely used in political opinion polls and consumer opinion surveys (2003,p.2). The Purposive Sampling will be used in order to gathering secondary data in form of cyclist perspective from Bangkok Bicycle Club. As decriped in Teddlie Yu(2007,p.80),Tashakkori Teddlie(2003) presents  ¿Ã‚ ½purposive sampling techniques involve selecting certain units or cases  ¿Ã‚ ½based on a speci ¬Ã‚ c purpose rather than randomly Tashakkori, A., Teddlie, C. (Eds.). (2003a). Handbook of mixed methods in social behavioral research.Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage. Teddlie C. Yu F.2007, Mixed Methods Sampling: A Typology With Examples, Mixed Methods Research, vol.1, no.77, pp.77-100, viewed 23 December 2010, Sampling size will be composed of 100 questionnaires created for bike rider, who online search for sport activities in Thailand destination. While interview survey technique will be conducted with the sample population among 10-15 interviwees with in Bangkok Bicycle Club representatives. 3.4 Questionnaire Survey 3.6 Interview Survey The semi-structured interview will be use Contribution of The Study It is expected that the key finding of this project will be guide and evaluate significant of current bicycle tourism sector therefore, to the better understand of all steakholder to be used for as an alternative tourism development in Bangkok Metropolis. Acknowledgments The author would like to acknowledge the Sustainable Tourism Cooperative Research Center(STCRC) for funding a supplementary scholarship, and the Australian Regional Tourism Research Centre for the provision of resouces used in this research. Finally, the publishers of Australian Cyclist magazine are sincerely thanked for their generous assistance. References: Introduction Part 1.Thailandtourism Sport Recreation: Biking http://www.tourismthailand.org/see-do/events-festivals/sports-recreation/biking/destination/0/cat/31/?sort=2bymonth=start_date=end_date=keyword=refine=cHash=f88c8a3490pageno=2pagesize=10 2. Thailand tourism plan 2552 http://www.oknation.net/blog/SIAM1932/2009/11/26/entry-3

Wordplay Functions In Literature And Literary Theory English Language Essay

Wordplay Functions In Literature And Literary Theory English Language Essay Abstract: Wordplay occupies a significant position in several important conceptions and theories of literature, principally because it has both a performative and a critical function in relation to language and cognition. This article describes the various uses and understandings of wordplay and their origins in its (Whose?) unique flexibility, which involves an interaction between a semiotic deficit and a semantic surplus. Furthermore, the article illustrates different methods of incorporating theories of wordplay into literature and literary theory, and finally, it demonstrates the ways in which the use of wordplay often leads to the use of metaphors and figurative language. Introduction Puns and wordplay occupy a significant position in literature as well as in various ways of reflecting on and conceptualizing literature. They can be used to produce and perform a poetic function with language and they can be used critically, which entails considering them from a distance(?) as utterances that undermine meaning and sense and that ultimately accomplish a deconstructive performance. A dictionary definition of the word pun illustrates that both homonymy (when two words with unrelated meanings have the same form) and polysemy (when one word form has two or more, related, meanings) can properly be used to form puns: a play on words, sometimes on different senses of the same word and sometimes on the similar sense or sound of different words (American Heritage College Dictionary 1997, Third Edition). However, this definition could also be extended to embrace the term wordplay, mainly because pun seems to cover only single words.  [1]  So a more precise definition of pu n might be a play on words, sometimes on different senses of the same expression and sometimes on the similar senses or sounds of different words (This is between inverted commas. Where is the citation?). The various uses and understandings of wordplay originate from a flexibility which this article attempts to identify and describe from both a historical and a contemporary perspective. Wordplay involves an interaction between a semiotic deficit and a semantic surplus and is therefore primarily understood and used in two different ways in literature and literary theory. Literary scholar Geoffrey Hartman succinctly articulated this interaction in an essay titled The Voice of the Shuttle: Language from the Point of View of Literature (1970) I dont know which system of citation the author is using. If it is APA, this citation is wrong: You can define a pun as two meanings competing for the same phonemic space or as one sound bringing forth semantic twins, but, however you look at it, its a crowded situation (1970: 347). The semiotic deficit is caused by one sign or expression signifying at least two meanings. The semantic surplus, on the other hand, refers to the cognitive event happenin g in the individual (in literature, the reader) experiencing the play on words. The article describes these two features of wordplay with the help of a few examples of wordplay in literature and literary theory, and it also demonstrates that the use of puns and wordplay often leads to the use of metaphor and figurative language or a semantic surplus like Hartmans twins. Furthermore, the article presents an argument for distinguishing between exploring the intention behind the use of wordplay and exploring wordplay itself. In the previous paragraph, the author talked about an essay by Hartman. Is he/she still referring to that essay when he/she talks about the article? Paranomasia and traductio In the beginning was the pun (1957: 65), writes Samuel Beckett in his novel Murphy from 1938 The citation is wrong, according to APA standards, but although puns and wordplay as such may have been with us from the very beginning (of what?) Beckett is paraphrasing the Bible), actual descriptions of wordplay do not appear until the rhetorical studies of Cicero and Quintilian. Parts of Platos Cratylus do; however, bear a superficial resemblance to wordplay because Socrates makes fun of etymological argumentation, showing the reader how language can lead to sophistic blind alleys and dead ends, which can be deceptive to those who are not familiar with the well-known schism between the world of ideas and the world of phenomena. Moreover, in Phaedrus, Socrates argues that in the written word there is necessarily much which is not serious (277E) It wasnt written by Socrates, but by Plato. It is this argumentation which Jacques Derrida later criticizes in Platos Pharmacy (1998) the system of citation does not seem to be consistent. Names of books are alternatively written in bold type, without inverted commas, or in normal type, with inverted commas, in which Derrida attempts to demonstrate the erosion of Platos argumentation through the two-sidedness and ambiguity of the word pharmakon and through the way Plato plays on the multiple meanings of this word. Writing is both a remedy and a poison, producing both science and magic. Platos antidote to sophism is episteme, or, in Derridas view, mental or epistemological repression. Derridas text demonstrates an interesting and intimate connection between writing, wordplay, oblivion and memory, but since this is a perspective a bit outside the framework of this article I will carry on a more historical view..  [2]   Over time, wordplay has been linked to the rhetorical terms of traductio and adnominatio. The anonymous Rhetoric to Herennius (Rhetorica ad Herennium), written in the period 86-82 BC and ascribed to Cicero until the fifteenth century, states that [t]ransplacement [traductio] makes it possible for the same word to be frequently reintroduced, not only without offence to good taste, but even so as to render the style more elegant (1954: 279) The work of Derrida was not cited like this. Traductio is classified below figures of diction and is compared to other figures of repetition. Common to these figures is an elegance which the ear can distinguish more easily than words can explain. (1954: 281). Identifying wordplay as traductio, however, may not entirely correspond with the understanding we have of wordplay today, although the lack of explanatory words within this rhetorical figure is comparable to the above-mentioned thesis. Today, we would perhaps rather characterize wordplay as adn ominatio [called paranomasia in the English translation]. The Rhetoric to Herennius states that wordplays should be used in moderation because they reveal the speakers labour and compromise his ethos: Such endeavours, indeed, seem more suitable for a speech of entertainment that for use in an actual cause. Hence the speakers credibility, impressiveness, and seriousness are lessened by crowding these figures together. Furthermore, apart from destroying the speakers authority, such a style gives offence because these figures have grace and elegance, but not impressiveness and beauty. (1954: 309) I have indented this, according to APA norms. Wordplay must therefore be used economically so as not to seem childish or to monopolize the listeners attention. In addition, the author of the Rhetoric points to the fact that one very quickly becomes too clever by half if the frequency of paronomasia is too high. In Quintilians treatise on rhetoric, The Orators Education (Institutio Oratoria), wordplay is reckoned among figures of speech (9.13). Another style of citation. Quintilian divides these into two types, the first of which concerns innovations in language, while the second concerns the arrangement of the words. The first type is, according to Quintilian, more grammatically based, while the latter is more rhetorically based, but with indistinct limits. At the same time, the first one protects the speaker against stereotypical language. Wordplay belongs to what Quintilian refers to as figures which depend on their sound; other figures depend on alteration, addition, subtraction or succession. Quintilian treats wordplay immediately following the chapter on addition and subtraction, thereby suggesting its status as something which neither subtracts nor adds. Otherwise his conception of wordplay is similar to that of the Rhetorica ad Herennium: wordplay should be used with cautiousness and only if it to some extent strengthens a point, in which case it can have a convincing effect.  [3]   What we can learn by reading these passages on wordplay in Quintillian and the Rhetorica ad Herennium is that ever since the beginning of literary studies our understanding of wordplay has oscillated between at least two different extremes: traductio and adnominatio / paranomasia, or, one could say, between an outer understanding concerned with the context and an inner understanding mostly concerned with language itself. This could also be one of the main reasons why literary theory has tended to describe puns and wordplay in two ways: either as magical (iconic) language use or as critical language use. Magical language use has much in common with wordplay as a rhetorical figure, and thus also with the way wordplay was used in antiquity and in the romantic era, between which periods the literature of Shakespeare creates an important link. For instance, it is quite remarkable that at first Shakespeare was admonished for his plays on words. In Germany, the Enlightenment poet and transl ator of Shakespeare, C.M. Wieland citation?, also complains about the wisecracks. He calls them albern (silly) and ekelhaft (disgusting). When A.W. Schlegel citation?, on the other hand, gets hold of Shakespeares texts, he is much more attentive to and respectful of the latters excesses in language. Schlegel is in debt to Herder citation?, who is one of the first in Germany to appreciate the poetry in Shakespeares works (their rhythm, melody and other more formal qualities) (cf. Larson (1989)). We cant carry out this comparison, because the works have not been properly cited. By using the rather odd term magical language, this article aims to carry on colloquial a German tradition of treating wordplay as Sprachmagie. Walter Benjamin, for instance, construes language as magical or self-endorsing citation?.  [4]  Critical language use, however, is more comparable to the use of wordplay and the discussion of wit in the Age of Enlightenment, and thus more generally to humour, including, for instance, the joke and the anecdote (whereas in relation to magical language use, wordplay should be regarded as akin to the riddle, the rebus and the mystery). Much literary theory may therefore have adopted these two ways of dealing with and understanding wordplay: it is treated as exceptionally poetic and almost magical precisely because it is untranslatable, or as something which can be used in a general critique of language in which this untranslatableness is used as an argument for the arbitrariness of the relationship between signifià © and signifiant .citation ?The words were not coined by the author of this paper. Wordplay as part of language criticism The work of the linguist Ferdinand de Saussure citation may be seen as a prism for the two understandings of wordplay throughout the twentieth century. On the one hand, there is the scholar Saussure, who later became famous for his hypothesis of the arbitrary relationship between signifià © and signifiant and for his statement that language only contains differences without positive terms. On the other hand, there is the other Saussure, who, besides his more official scholarship, occupies himself with anagrams in Latin texts (cf. Starobinski 1979). In his private scholarship Saussure considers the sign highly motivated, which stands in contrast to his thesis of the arbitrariness of the sign in his official scholarship. Saussures remarkable occupation with language alternates between an almost desperate confidence in language and a growing distrust of its epistemological value. The discussion in the last part of this article will be based on this distrust, orienting it toward Nietzsc he and Freud, since they represent two of the most predominant views on language and thus wordplay in several important literary theories of the twentieth century, not least Russian Formalism and deconstruction. Franz Fà ¼rst (1979) wrongly cited, according to APA norms mentions that wordplay changes character during the nineteenth century. First, the romantic age idealizes it, changing its characteristics. Wordplay is not only connected to wit, but also to in my free translation from Bernhardis Sprachlehre (1801-1803) citation the eternal consonance of the universe through its heterogeneous homogeneity.  [5]  The coherence between sound and meaning was therefore at first considered deeper than might be expected, but the coherence, as the future would show, also had another side displaying a quite different function of wordplay. Fà ¼rst explains: Aus einer à ¤hnlichen Bemà ¼hung um die Wiederherstellung der engen Wort-Ding-Beziehung, jedoch mit karikaturistischer Absicht, entstand eine neue Technik des Wortspiels, die von Brentano und ihm folgend von Heine und Nietzsche verwendet wurde. Diese Technik verzichtet auf das Urwort und begnà ¼gt sich mit der Wortentstellung, der Karikatur eines ehemals organisch-sinnvollen Wortes zur Bezeichnung einer entstellten Wirklichkeit. (1979: 49) We need a translation of this. In Fà ¼rsts view, from pointing out a deeper coherence, wordplay now stands at the service of a distorted reality. It becomes an example of the play of falseness and designates a disfigured reality, especially concerning epistemological questions. The connection with this deeper coherence is therefore eliminated from language and discarded. For example, wordplay and other rhetorical figures which build upon likeness, like the metaphor, are denigrated in Nietzsches work from 1873, On Truth and Lie in an Extra-Moral Sense citation , when he proclaims that the truth is only [a] mobile army of metaphors, metonyms, and anthropomorphisms in short, a sum of human relations which have been enhanced, transposed, and embellished poetically and rhetorically (1982: 46-47). Martin Stingelin points out that Nietzsches wordplay gewinnt (à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦) seine reflexive Qualità ¤t gerade durch Entstellung (1988: 348) Translation, citation. Precisely because everything is rhetoric anyway, we must turn the sting of language against itself. In this connection, wordplay is the least convincing example of false resemblances made by language and can therefore participate reflectively and ironically in such an Enstellung (distortion). The failure to convince should indicate, and thereby ironically convince us, that there is something inherently wrong with language and the epistemological cognition it attends to for us. Besides Nietzsches critique, we also find Freuds general distrust of language in the beginning of the twentieth century. Most relevant to wordplay is his work The Joke and Its Relation to the Unconscious. Date, citation.With this as a starting point, it is possible to make some more general remarks about the fundamental importance of the relationship between wordplay and metaphor in the different ways in which wordplay is understood and used in twentieth-century literary theory. Freud believes that play on words is nothing but condensation without substitute-formation; condensation is still the overriding category. A tendency to parsimony predominates in all these techniques. Everything seems to be a matter of economy, as Hamlet says (Thrift, thrift, Horatio!) Speech marks (2003: 32). Freuds interest in wordplay therefore goes by way of the joke, which is primarily characterized by economization and condensation.  [6]  A substitution is omitted; in other words, wordplay is not a translation of something unconscious, but a translation which more precisely takes place in language. This is also one of the definitions that Walter Redfern arrives at (1997: 265). Redferns study of wordplay is without doubt the most comprehensive yet in a literary context, but the many metaphorical classifications for instance, ubiquity, equality, fissiparity, double-talk, intoxication (2000: 4) or bastard, a melting-pot, a hotchpotch, a potlatch, potluck (2000: 217) are char acteristic of the relationship between wordplay and metaphor. Wordplay therefore has to do with something fundamentally poetic in language, or as Roman Jakobson puts it, poetry is precisely characterized by being untranslatable: In poetry, verbal equations become a constructive principle of the text. Syntactic and morphological categories, roots, and affixes, phonemes and their components (distinctive features) in short, any constituents of the verbal code are confronted, juxtaposed, brought into contiguous relation according to the principle of similarity and contrast and carry their own autonomous signification. Phonemic similarity is sensed as semantic relationship. The pun, or to use a more erudite and perhaps more precise term paronomasia, reigns over poetic art, and whether its rule is absolute or limited, poetry by definition is untranslatable. (1987: 434) If wordplay may be characterized as a translation in language, metaphor may be considered a translation with language, and each time this inner translation or untranslatability of a pun or wordplay is translated, words for this translation are lacking. Arguably, this is exactly where metaphor helps, like a Band-Aid for a small wound. For this lack or deficit of words produces a poetic surplus which is precisely able to express itself in metaphors and figurative language in general. The latter is an attempt to explain the translation or translate it to something more comprehensible. Whereas the metaphor gives the sense of an effective blend between two semantic fields which together create a third one, wordplay gives a very different impression. The third place which the wordplay creates in its expression is not intellectually comprehensible, but rather inscribed in the form of its own manifestation, a distinctive blend of sound and sense. The incomprehensibleness is an argument for both of its general understandings, partly according to a view which considers language something which can reveal the nonsense of a truth (language criticism) and partly according to a certain kind of nonsensical truth, the idea that language contains m ore than we are aware of (magical language use). Consequently, it is not so odd that metaphor is useful for describing wordplay: metaphor creates a convergence between several semantic fields by covering up the differences between them and in so doing often makes poetry happen. Wordplay, on the other hand, fixes the difference in the mind, thus maintaining the convergence in its very expression. Take, for instance, the literary example of Shakespeares Sonnet CXXXII: THINE eyes I love, and they, as pitying me, Knowing thy heart torment me with disdain, Have put on black and loving mourners be, Looking with pretty ruth upon my pain. And truly not the morning sun of heaven Better becomes the grey cheeks of the east, Nor that full star that ushers in the even, Doth half that glory to the sober west, As those two mourning eyes become thy face: O! let it then as well beseem thy heart To mourn for me since mourning doth thee grace, And suit thy pity like in every part.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Then will I swear beauty herself is black,   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  And all they foul that thy complexion lack. The sonnet is replete with wordplay and puns, especially on the words I and eye, and morning and mourning no inverted commas here?, but also and perhaps less importantly on the words ruth and truth. Appropriately, the sonnet contains two instances of the word I, punningly mirroring the two eyes. But an expression and a metaphor like the grey cheeks of the east would simply not emerge without the existence of the pun between morning and mourning. The poem develops and invents a vocabulary and uses expressions which would simply not exist or appear without the puns and plays on words. It actually manages to connect blackness with beauty because of the pun between mourning and morning which also connects the sun with the full star and in this manner with the night. Hence, everything that the I in the sonnet lays eyes on is polluted by a look of mourning and pity. The connection mentioned above causes most scholars to describe wordplay as a potential metaphor; even Freud (especially read in the perspective of Jacques Lacan citation  [7]  ) indicates that we should understand wordplay this way. However, no one has shown that metaphor is a potential wordplay. The question must be whether the connection goes both ways or if wordplay simply is a more initial metaphor? In any case, following Lakoff and Johnsons now classic theory (1980), it is easy to suspect that so-called dead metaphors can be played on more easily than other words for example, the word leg, which is used in connection with chairs, tables and human beings, or words like root or rose, which function in countless contexts. The ambiguity is most severe in connection with some of the key examples provided by Lakoff and Johnson, such as our value-laden and metaphorical organization of space in up and down, in and out, and so forth. The reason for this is probably not that these e xpressions are metaphorical, but rather that they belong to the trite vocabulary which often activates wordplay makes it alert, as Redfern citation writes. In other words, a revitalizing process in language takes place between wordplay and metaphor. Wordplay is not more original than metaphor, nor is the reverse true, for that matter. Experience has shown that wordplay has a tendency to generate metaphors when we attempt describe what they exactly mean and that dead metaphors have a tendency to generate wordplay. Regarding the latter, the same applies to dead language in general, such as hackneyed proverbs, phrases and clichà ©s. Along with the dead metaphors, these expressions make up an un-sensed language which often activates wordplay. The more remarkable of these two relations is without doubt the first one, which I will therefore focus on. The relation between wordplay and metaphor outlined above corresponds with the one that Maureen Quilligan (1992) identifies between wordplay and allegory. Below, we will examine Quilligans understanding of their connection. Wordplay and allegory Quilligan tries to redefine allegory as a genre in which wordplay plays a central part due to its ambiguousness, or as Quilligan writes, [a] sensitivity to the polysemy in words is the basic component of the genre of allegory (1992: 33). Quilligan sees wordplay as initiating the unfolding of the relationship of the text to itself. The text comments on itself, not discursively, but narratively. In this way an author does the same thing with allegory as the literary critic, but the difference is that the author makes commentary on that is, enacts an allegoresis of his own text, which is due to the fact that language is self-reflexive. But this self-reflexivity is only brought about through the reader, who therefore constantly plays an important role in Quilligans reading and re-evaluation of allegory. Self-reflexivity is, however, potentially inscribed in the text through certain traces, especially through polysemy, which expresses itself on the most fundamental literal level specif ically, in the sounds of the words and it is in this respect that wordplay enters the picture alongside allegory. Quilligan uses Quintilian to differentiate between allegory and allegoresis. Allegoresis is literary interpretation or critique of a text, and it was this concept that Quintilian was referring to when he wrote that allegory means one thing at the linguistic level and another at the semantic level; in other words, as a figure, allegory could retain a separation between several semantic levels for a long time for example, between a literal and a figurative level. However, the other which the word allegory points towards with its allos is not someone floating somewhere above the text, but the possibility of an otherness, a polysemy, says Quilligan, on the page and in the text. The allegory designates the fact that language can mean numerous things at once. This very redefinition causes Quilligan to turn towards wordplay. Besides, Quilligan wants to escape from a vertical understanding of allegory such as it has been inherited from Dante, who organized his Divine Comedy according to the Bible, which he believed had four layers of meaning. Quilligan suggests that allegory works horizontally, so that the meaning is increased serially by connecting the verbal surface before moving to another level for example, beyond or above the literal level. And this other level which she refers to has to be located in the reader, who will gradually become aware of the way he or she creates the meaning of the text. Out of this awareness comes a consciousness, not just of how the text is read, but also of the human response to the narrative. Self-reflexivity occurs, and, finally, out of this a relation is established to the other (allos) towards which the allegory leads its reader through the allegoresis. This sensation of the real meaning can be called sacred. Quilligan aims to grasp allegory in its pure form before it becomes allegoresis. Through her readings, she tries to identify a more undetermined conception of allegory on a linguistic level before it gets determined by and in the reader. Quilligan could have used Quintilians definition of allegory as a continued metaphor (III, 2001, 8:6: 44) to establish a relation between allegory, metaphor and wordplay. In my view she thus misses something essential in the contiguous relationship between wordplay, allegory and allegoresis, and this is the making of metaphors. The relation between wordplay and metaphor constitutes a more intimate bond than that between wordplay and allegory, or, as James Brown puts it: The pun is the first step away from the transparent word, the first step towards the achievement of symbolic metaphor (1956:18). But this does not mean that wordplay is some sort of metaphor, as Brown seems to suggest. More accurately, it would be reasonable to suggest that wordplay gives rise to creative language usage, including metaphors and figurative language use in general. This very use is an attempt to translate the relative untranslatability of wordplay, and thereby to satisfy a natural human desire for understanding. Russian formalism vs. deconstruction By treating the text as described above, Quilligan can read several texts in a new and constructive manner inspired by the way that early literary works such as The Faerie Queene way of writing titles deal with language. But it is principally Quilligans starting point and to a lesser degree her treatment of the text that I aim to pinpoint with my focus on wordplay. This article does not claim that the twentieth century should only be understood in the light of wordplay, but rather that in some periods wordplay was used with very specific intentions, and that it offers an understanding of language which several literary theories benefit from. Wordplay stands out particularly in two twentieth-century literary theories namely, Russian formalism and literary deconstruction in the wake of Jacques Derrida citation but it is used in very different ways in these theories. In Russian formalism, wordplay involves a revitalization of language,  [8]  parallel to the concept of skaz,  [9]  which refers to an illusion of a kind of orality or even realism in literary language. In contrast, in deconstruction, wordplay is often tied to writings influence on language in general to a grammatology, to borrow Derridas term. From a deconstructive perspective, wordplay deals with the inadvertent or unintended in the intended (cf. Gordon C.F. Bearn 1995a: 2), or with absence in presence; the exact opposite is true in Russian formalism, which deals with puns and wordplay as a form of oral presence in writing, likening this to a kind of absence. Here, as in other cases, wordplay is involved in a fundamental shift in perspective between a semiotic deficit and a semantic surplus in what may be called a constructive and deconstructive construction of meaning. An example of this problematic is a book by Howard Felperin citation problems with the symptomatic title Beyond Deconstruction. The Uses and Abuses of Literary Theory. In this book, Felperin differentiates between what he calls the enactment and counter-enactment of wordplay, emphasizing counter-enactment at the expense of enactment: If the figures of enactment, of speaking in effect in Shakespeares phrase, work cumulatively to integrate the jigsaw puzzle of language into concrete replica of the sensory world, the pun is precisely that piece of language which will fit into several positions in the puzzle and thereby confound attempts to reconstruct the puzzle into a map or picture with any unique or privileged reliability or fidelity of reference. Whereas metaphor and onamatopeia attempt to bridge the precipitate fissures between signs and their meaning, paronomasia [or wordplay; Felperin does not make a distinction] effectively destabilizes further whatever conventional stability the relation between sign and meaning may be thought to possess. (1985: 185) (My addition) In Felperins view, wordplay turns our understanding of things upside down in respect to both language in general and certain overall views of life and so forth. This is the reason why wordplay has been disliked for so many years. Felperin analyses Shakespeare and finds that wordplay is at the disposal of language in various ways in Shakespeares work, precisely in the form of a counter-enactment. However, what he seems to forget is that not only does wordplay oppose similarities, but it also conveys likeness for instance, in the wordplay between eye and I, which may underlie a much deeper understanding of the sonnets and of subjectivity in Shakespeares works in general (cf. Fineman 1988). Arguing against the theory of enactment, Felperin criticizes, among other things, Russian formalism as a theory founded on metaphor (which from Felperins deconstructive perspective is the wrong foundation when it comes to an ontology of language): The Russian formalists, for example, like the Elizabethans, see language as aboriginally poetic, and similarly identify its performative potential in the storehouse of metaphor that lies buried within it (1985: 180). Only Shakespeare escapes this sort of criticism, which appears typical of the period and untenable. Metaphor almost seems like a dark, anthropomorphic enemy in such a deconstructive point of view. Furthermore, Felperin of course makes considerable efforts to define wordplay as a matter

Pompey The Great :: essays research papers

Pompey The Great   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Pompey was a Roman general and political leader. He was a member of the first Triumvirate with Julius Caesar and Marcus Crassus, but later became Caesar's enemy.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Pompey was born September 30, 106 B.C. His first important military experiences were in the Social war during which his father Pompeius Strabo, taught Pompey his military skills. Pompey distinguished himself in the civil war between Lucies Sulla and Gaius Marius. Pompey raised his own army in Picenum. He did such a good job raising his army he was made an imperator general. In 83 B.C., he was sent as an imperator general to Sicily and then to Africa. Successes in both places earned Pompey the name Magnus and the honor of a triumph, although he was little over 25 years old and legally unqualified for such a status.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Some years later, the senate used his aid against the remnants of Marius' factor. Then in 77 B.C., Pompey moved against the Marian forces commanded by Quintus Sertorius in Spain. There his operations were not rewarded but Sertoriu's death by poison permitted Pompeys return to Italy in time to annihilate the remnants of Spartacus's army fleeing from the defeat at Crassus hands (71 B.C.). For his victory, Pompey celebrated his second triumph although he still held public office. He got a spot in office by moving into the highest office of all, the consulship with Crassus as his colleague (70 B.C.). Together they overthrew Sulla's constitution by giving the plebian tribunes their former powers and the knights partial control of the law courts. In 67 B.C., the tribune Aulus Gabinius, by a bill gave extraordinary military powers to Pompey. His objective was to deal with Piracy throughout the Mediterranean. Pompey needed only three months to finish this task.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  This feat led to further honors. In 60 B.C., on the motion of another tribune, Pompey received even greater powers when appointed in Lucullus's place as commander against Mithridates the Great. With little difficulty, the new Roman commander forced the Mithridates from Asia Minor and then spent some years overrunning the North East. The big range of Pompey's Journeys and his hatred towards the natives started future trouble with Parthia. Pompey did, however, increase Rome's dominions, and he also laid a firm foundation for Roman administration in the area. While in Palestine, he learned of Mithridates' suicide and some months later he returned to Italy and a third triumph. His action in disbanding his army relieved his enemies of their anxiety at his return, but it also persuaded the senate to refuse to approve his near Eastern

The First World War (WWI) :: World War 1 I One

World War 1 World War 1 was called â€Å"The Great War†, â€Å"The war to end all wars†, and â€Å"The first modern war†. It had many causes and a few repercussions and I will describe them in detail. The most widely known reason for the start of World War1 was the assassination of the Arch Duke Ferdinad of Austria-Hungary in the Serbian capital of Sarajevo. The ArchDuke was there to talk to the Serbian leaders about peace in the Balkan Peninsula. After a Serbian was arrested for the assassination Austria-Hungary pulled out of the peace talks and declared war on Serbia. Germany who was allied with Austria-Hungary also declared war on Serbia. Russia who was allied with Serbia had to declare war on Germany and Austria-Hungary. When Germany invaded France and Belgium, Great Britain declared war on Germany. World War 1 had begun. As the German Chancellor, Bethmann-Hollweg said, â€Å"Once the dice are cast nothing can stop them.† Indeed once the dice were cast on World War 1 nothing stopped them until 22 million people had died. Besides the assassination of the archduke there were four other reasons for the start of WW1. 1. Militarism- the building of large armies. All the nations in Europe at that time were engaged in what today could only be called an arms race. As soon as one nation built a new weapon, all the others followed suit. 2. Alliance System- The building of alliances to strengthen the borders of a country. In theses alliances if one country went to war all the other countries in the alliance were forced to go to war also. 3. Imperialism- The practice of colonizing other lands by large European nations. 4.Nationalism- The feeling of Patriotism in a country that makes it compete with all other counties in the area in all areas. In my opinion WW1 was an unnecessary global conflict in which 22 million people needlessly lost their lives. I think that this conflict could have be prevented or stopped in 2 ways. One if the Serbian leaders had more closely guarded the car that carried Archduke Ferdinad. If the assassin had not been able to get near the car perhaps the

The Effect of Telecommunications Technology on our Work and Play :: Technology Impact Technological Essays

Cell phones have changed the atmosphere of our workplaces, making them more escapable physically, yet at the same time making them less escapable mentally. Enhanced with other phone services such as caller ID, call forwarding, and answering machines they have created whole new sets of contacting games between employee's and their co-workers. They have made our roads more dangerous, yet having them in our cars has made it easier to call a tow truck when you're stranded, or to call a radio station to report gridlock. The same person that uses their phone in line at the store to get the advantage over the unreachable employee to gain status at the office, also loses status in the community due to the snickering behind them in line. The recent telecommunications improvements provide an opportunity for the appealing psuedo-self-employed aspects of telecommuting. For parents, cell phones have eliminated the excuses of the late night returning child when asked 'Why didn't you call?" Cell ph ones have obviously intruded into our lives in more ways than we even realize at first glimpse, while making a great deal of things we do much easier. In this paper I will attempt to expand on how these changing relationships effect our always stressed out society. Wireless Communications is in the grand scheme of technological development, a rather recent event. But the quickness to which the market of cellular phones has expanded shows that some people have definitely embraced it as a positive. The graph on the following page shows the rapidity of America's love affair with the cell phone. Radio Telephone technology started in 1977 when Motorola, American Radio Telephone, and AT&T were licensed by the FCC to develop a high capacity radio telephone system for shortwave radio bands. In 1978 AT&T began the first radio telephone system test operations in Chicago. The Japenese inaugurated the first commercial cellular telephone system in Tokyo in 1979. In the United States, the Federal Communications commission authorized commercial cell phones in 1982 and the first system was set up by Ameritech in Chicago the following year. AT&T and Motorola followed in 1984 with their own systems in New York and Washington D.C.. The amount of customers and potential customers rapidly expanded and by 1990 there were systems in place, or close to being completed in every market in the United States. As the graph shows the early 1990's gave way to an exponential growth in ownership of cell phones especially as the new digital lighter weight phones became available in 1992.

Native American Treaties

America requested that the Nation cede certain races of land, beneficial to the US, and with the agreement that the United States could establish garrisons where they desired In order to protect the frontiers. In exchange for the considerations and the permanent relinquishment of those lands and claims, the United States agreed to pay the nation several types of compensation. First was an annual monetary sum of $3000. 00 every year indefinitely to the Creek Nation, with an additional $1000. 00 per year to the chiefs who administer the governmental services to the tribe.Also provided In the treaty was the sum of $25,000. 00, to be distributed in parts as merchandise and goods, the distraction of debts the Nation owed, and the satisfaction of individual loss of property claims against the tribe by citizens of the united States. In addition, the united States agreed to furnish two sets of Blacksmiths tools and the men to work them for a period of three years. K State Creek 1802 1 felt a s though, while I still disagree with the idea that these â€Å"treaty agreements† were in any way fair or a true â€Å"option† to the tribes on these lands, this particular treaty wasn't any crueler than other treaties.The land descriptions of what was to be ceded to the united States Is official for me to comprehend in any Value' aspect. I am not certain of the acreage, nor would I begin to know the land value. Secondly, only part of that value was direct compensation. I find the breakdown of the larger compensation package suspect, since It virtually â€Å"forgives† â€Å"debts† that the United States government purports the Creek Indians acquired and/or for acts the government purports the Creek Indians committed against the citizens of America.If the land, property, or other purported to have been taken was in actuality the Creek Indian's to begin with, then it would be unfair to use land compensation as â€Å"payment of a debt† that never occ urred. The second treaty I chose was signed August 9, 1814, (also called the Treaty of Ft. Jackson) following the events surrounding the War of 1812. Andrew Jackson was both the 1 OFF the Creek Indian tribes that culminated with the Battle of Horseshoe Bend in Alabama on March 27, 1814, and killed 800 Indian warriors and imprisoned over 500 women and children in the Ft Aims Massacre. Britannica – Creek Indian War) The agreement was in response to â€Å"†¦ Unprovoked, inhuman, and sanguinary war, waged y the hostile Creeks against us† and for basically violating the 1790 treaty, â€Å"disregarding the previous genuine spirit of existing treaties†. (K State Creek 1814) This treaty had many more provisions, and heavily favored the United States, while laying blame to the Creek Indians for the events that lead to the massacre, and hence, this â€Å"treaty' which reads more as a list of spoils.The United States demanded the equivalent to all expenses for seeing out the entirety of the war to its end. Not being specifically written, I can only assume that they â€Å"entirety' included the Creek Indian War AND the majority of the War of 1812. The United States was penalizing the Creek Indians for affording assistance and aid to the British during the War of 1812. This equated to over 23,000,000 acres of land, minus a few â€Å"reservations† of 1 mile tracts per person who had remained friendly to the United States during the conflict.The US also demanded that the Creeks abandon all communications and relations with the British and the Spanish, the rights to establish military posts and trading houses on roads in territories still occupied by the Indian tribe, the right to completely free navigation of all waters, the surrender of al persons or property gained by the Creeks during the conflicts, the capture and surrender of all instigators, and permanent peace between the Creek Indians and the United States, as well as among the Cree k Indians and the Cherokee, Chickasaws, and Choctaw Indian tribes.In â€Å"return† for the demands, the Americans guaranteed the integrity of the Northern and North eastern aspects of their territory, as well as a â€Å"Humanitarian† gesture of continuing to â€Å"furnish the necessaries of life†¦ Until crops are competent to yield; and will establish trading houses in the Nation to enable the Nation to procure clothes†¦ By industry or economy'. (K State Creek 1814) The benefit of this treaty was quite obviously in favor of the United States. There was little concession to the Indians for what amounts to half of the state of Alabama and the entire South portion of Georgia in land mass. Britannica – Creek Indian War) While the wording tends to validate the demands of the US, it does not address that the War of 1812 was an occurrence during the intertribal wars that were going on at the time. Some tribes saw an opportunity to show a loyalty to the US, w hich further incited the opposing tribes who felt that the intrusion of the US was not permissible to act against the US, but supporting the opposition in the war, or actually attacking American citizens themselves. Encore of Alabama) The actions of the tribes had not started as actions against the United States for the sake of war against America. Had this been the case, Jackson's generalization of â€Å"unprovoked, inhuman war† might be more accurate. However, at a time in history where the United States was systematically striping land, rights, and humanity from the indigenous people who ere in actual possession of it upon the American's arrival is hypocritical at best.The drastic change between the style and manner of the treaties of 1802 and 1814 show the turn America took from being a participant in a mutual, albeit selfish, exchange to a punishing political power using treaties and government backed Americans was, ironically, to become President and initiate Indian Rem oval as formal policy. With the â€Å"concession as a gesture of humanity' America made the Creek Tribe both more dependent on the US government for necessities they could not themselves generate – now for lack of the territory they once had to farm, herd, and ark on – but also began a culture of resentment with the tribe.I am not convinced this wasn't the exact objective of the ‘humanitarian help' written into the agreement. It is clear to see that while in the beginning, there was a more conservative tactic with the treaties to maintain a certain amount of control over the native tribes, there was a more concerted effort as time passed and the United States desired to take more and give less. The power differential is shown most vividly in the sheer volume of land taken in the 1814 treaty as â€Å"equivalent to expenses†.